Mogao Caves, Dunhuang – A Repository of Ancient Chinese Civilization

The Maitreya Buddha statue inside Cave 96 stands at an impressive height of 33 meters, making it the tallest clay statue in China and the second tallest Buddhist statue after the stone Buddha of Leshan in Sichuan. The statue was originally constructed by chiseling a stone core from the cliff and then covering it with layers of clay mixed with straw and hemp to create its final form. The statue depicts Maitreya, the future Buddha, seated in a meditative posture with legs hanging down and feet resting on lotus flowers. This pose, known as “善跏坐” (shan jia zuo), is characteristic of the early Tang period and exudes a serene and majestic presence.

The construction of the Maitreya Buddha and the Nine-Story Pagoda is attributed to the monk Lingyin and the layman Yin Zu during the Wu Zhou era (690-705 CE), as recorded in historical documents like the Mogao Caves Record (P. 3720). This period saw a surge in Maitreya worship, influenced by Empress Wu Zetian’s promotion of the Maitreya cult, and the construction of similar grand statues across China.

The Nine-Story Pagoda has a fascinating history of architectural evolution. Initially, the pagoda was a four-story structure built to cover and protect the statue. In the late Tang Dynasty, between 874 and 879 CE, Zhang Huaishen, a military governor of Shazhou (Dunhuang), reconstructed the pagoda, expanding it to five stories. Further renovations took place during the Song Dynasty in 966 CE when Cao Yuanzhong, the governor of Shazhou, and his wife, Lady Zhishun, undertook significant repairs and upgrades.

In the late Qing Dynasty, specifically in 1908, local merchant Dai Fengyu funded another major renovation, increasing the structure’s height to seven stories. Finally, in 1928, under the supervision of Liu Jide and the resident monk Lama Yichangshu, the pagoda was reconstructed to its current nine-story form. This final renovation was completed in 1935, resulting in the majestic structure that visitors see today.

Cave 16, also known as the Wu Monk’s Cave, was constructed between 851 and 867 CE during the late Tang Dynasty. It was commissioned by Wu Monk, or Hong Bian, who was the head monk of the Hexi region. This cave features a central pillar hall with a ceiling that resembles an inverted funnel, a distinctive architectural style of the period.

Cave 17, situated adjacent to Cave 16, is famously known as the Library Cave. Discovered by Wang Yuanlu in 1900, this cave contained a vast trove of manuscripts, paintings, textiles, and other artifacts, many of which date back to the 4th century. These treasures provide invaluable insights into the cultural and religious history of the Silk Road.

The Three-Story Building is a wooden structure that extends across the cliff face, integrating three tiers of caves. The ground level houses Cave 16, which is the largest cave in terms of area at the Mogao Caves. The cave features a central altar with nine statues from the Qing Dynasty that replaced the original Song Dynasty sculptures. The altar is backed by a mural that spans the cave’s height, displaying both Tang and Song Dynasty artwork.

The second and third levels consist of Cave 365 (the Seven Buddhas Hall) and Cave 366. The façade of these caves is unified by a three-story wooden structure built along the cliff, creating a cohesive architectural ensemble. This structure, rebuilt in 1906 under the supervision of Wang Yuanlu, enhances the visual and structural integrity of the caves.

Cave 16’s walls are adorned with multi-layered murals. The top layer, painted during the Western Xia period, features green-background thousand-Buddha motifs that are somewhat uniform and lack the vibrancy of earlier works. However, during restoration work in 1981, the Dunhuang Academy uncovered underlying murals from the late Tang Dynasty, which are remarkably vivid and colorful, offering a glimpse into the artistic splendor of the era.

The cave’s ceiling is decorated with gilded plaster reliefs of phoenixes and dragons from the Western Xia period, surrounded by intricate floral patterns. The entrance corridor walls display Western Xia frescoes depicting scenes of preaching and images of bodhisattvas.

In May 1900, Daoist Wang Yuanlu accidentally discovered Cave 17 while cleaning sand from the corridor of Cave 16. The cave was found hidden behind a walled-up section, filled with thousands of manuscripts, scrolls, paintings, and other religious artifacts, leading to its nickname, the Library Cave.

The discovery of Cave 17 revealed a treasure trove of documents dating from the 4th to the 11th centuries. The collection includes over 50,000 items, with manuscripts in various languages such as Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, Uighur, Sogdian, and Khotanese. Approximately 90% of the documents are Buddhist scriptures, with the remaining 10% encompassing a wide array of subjects, including government documents, secular literature, economic records, and educational texts. This diverse collection provides invaluable insights into the religious, cultural, and social history of the Silk Road.

The manuscripts found in Cave 17 include an array of Buddhist texts, such as sutras and commentaries, reflecting the rich religious life of the time. Non-Buddhist documents comprise administrative records, personal letters, literature, and educational materials, offering a glimpse into the everyday lives and governance of the region. Additionally, the cave contained numerous paintings on silk and paper, embroidered banners, bronze statues, ritual objects, and miniature wall painting sketches, showcasing the artistic achievements of the period.

The discovery of the Library Cave significantly impacted the study of Central Asian and Silk Road history. However, due to the Qing Dynasty’s political instability and corruption, many of the artifacts were dispersed worldwide. Notable expeditions by explorers such as Aurel Stein and Paul Pelliot led to significant portions of the collection being taken to various international institutions, where they are now housed.

Today, efforts are being made to preserve and study the remaining artifacts and manuscripts, both in China and abroad. The digitalization of these materials has allowed for broader access and deeper research into the cultural exchanges and historical developments along the Silk Road.

With the opening of the Dunhuang Mogao Caves Digital Exhibition Center, there has been a revolutionary change in how the Mogao Caves are accessed and toured. All visitors must now make reservations online to visit the Mogao Caves. Before the actual visit, they must first go through the digital exhibition center, where they watch several 20-minute themed films and dome films. These films provide essential background knowledge about the Mogao Caves and offer a virtual tour of the cave architecture, sculptures, and murals, allowing visitors to appreciate the profound Buddhist art of the Mogao Caves.

After this digital introduction, visitors take a shuttle bus from the exhibition center to the Mogao Caves. They are then divided into groups of guided tours, where tour guides lead them along a predetermined route through the caves. After the tour, visitors return to the digital exhibition center by shuttle bus, where they can shop or rest. This innovative approach ensures a more informed and respectful visitation process, protecting the delicate cave art while enhancing the visitor experience.

The generally accepted view among scholars is that the first cave in Mogao Grottoes was carved in 366 CE by a monk named Le Zun during the Former Qin period. According to an inscription from the Wu Zhou Shengli era (698 CE), Le Zun experienced a vision of a thousand Buddhas emitting golden light at the site, inspiring him to carve the first cave. Subsequently, another monk named Fa Liang continued the work, expanding the initial effort. By the Northern Liang period, a small monastic community had formed around the caves. These early caves served as places for solitary meditation and later evolved to support nearby temples.

During the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou periods, the Mogao Caves began to flourish. Influential figures such as the Northern Wei prince Yuan Tai Rong and the Northern Zhou noble Jian Ping Gong Yu Yi, who served as local governors, promoted Buddhist sculpture and cave construction. The caves developed further, becoming a vital religious and cultural hub along the Silk Road.

The Sui (581-618) and early Tang (618-907) periods marked the height of Dunhuang’s prominence as a key commercial and religious center on the Silk Road. The Mogao Caves saw extensive construction during this time, including the creation of large statues and intricate murals. These artworks served multiple purposes: aiding meditation, educating the illiterate about Buddhist teachings, and demonstrating devotion. The caves were sponsored by a variety of patrons, including Buddhist monks, local elites, merchants, military officers, and even groups of local women. This era saw the creation of some of the most elaborate and artistically significant caves, reflecting the diverse influences and wealth of the region.

Following the An Lushan Rebellion in 755, the Tang Dynasty’s control weakened, and by 781, the region fell under Tibetan control. Despite this, the Mogao Caves continued to develop with Tibetan patronage. In 848, Zhang Yichao led a successful rebellion to reclaim the region for the Tang, ushering in a period of stability and continued construction.

The Zhang family, who ruled as the Guiyi Army during the late Tang, along with their aristocratic relatives, further contributed to the development of the caves. In 914, the Cao family replaced the Zhangs and ruled for over a century. They sponsored new caves and undertook significant renovations of older ones. The Caos also commissioned extensive outdoor murals on the cliff faces, enhancing the site’s grandeur.

The Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127) and subsequent Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) saw the region come under the control of the Western Xia and then the Mongol Empire. Although some construction and renovation continued during these periods, the importance of the Silk Road declined, leading to economic downturns in Dunhuang. By the time the Yuan Dynasty took control, the creation of new caves had ceased, and the site began to fall into neglect.

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